Ancient China was a vast, unified territory inhabited by a rigorous and advanced society, yet deeply divided by immense social disparities. Amidst the countless struggles for survival, evidence of tattooing practices among Chinese tribes can be found dating back to the 1st century BC.
The term for tattooing, wen shen (meaning “marking the body”), entered China’s written history during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Although several other terms existed—such as mo (to draw/paint), lou shen (engraving the body), and xiu mian (embroidering the face)—wen shen became the universally accepted historical term for two reasons. First, it was the most frequently used term in ancient texts. More importantly, its original pictographic meaning depicts a man with a tattooed chest.
Despite these cultural roots, the Han Dynasty elite viewed tattoos as a barbaric practice reserved for ethnic minorities or foreigners. The Han people considered themselves the only “true” Chinese, looking down on others as primitive inhabitants who cut their skin, causing permanent scars. In their view, to be non-Han was to be uncivilized, and often, an enemy of the state. For instance, the people of Wo (Japan) were commanded to tattoo their faces and bodies. An ancient text from the 3rd century BC stated that people would turn away from an aggressive ruler, viewing him with the same hostility as a tattooed enemy.
Later records indicate that only one form of tattooing was accepted in mainstream Chinese society: punitive tattooing. This was used as a punishment for theft, adultery, or other serious crimes. In the 6th and 7th centuries, the Han Shu (Treatise on Punishment) recorded that approximately 500 individuals guilty of murder were punished with tattoos. This practice was known as mo zui (“ink crime”) and often carried the weight of exile, ensuring the criminal’s permanent exclusion from civilized society.
Religious beliefs also cast tattoos in a negative light. Confucian principles discouraged any alteration of the body, preaching that the physical form should be preserved exactly as it was received from one’s parents. Similarly, some Buddhist schools emphasized maintaining the body’s purity to ensure a proper reincarnation.
These negative connotations persisted for centuries. Following the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the government sought to eliminate “superstitions” and transform traditional customs. These laws affected many of the 56 ethnic minorities, leading to the near-extinction of tattooing among groups like the Li and Dulong peoples.
However, this official disapproval is not the only perspective. A closer look at the Li and other ethnic groups reveals that tattoos deeply influenced the cultural imagination, as seen in 7th-century chronicles. These records describe “uncultured” peoples who tattooed snakes and insects on their bodies. Sadly, the original forms of Taiwanese indigenous tattooing have largely vanished, and with each passing generation, the art fades away alongside the elderly tattoo bearers.
The Caucasian Mummies of the Northwest
In the 1970s, the discovery of thousands of Caucasian mummies in Northwest China revealed a rich tattooing culture. Long before the advent of writing in China, groups of nomadic traders roamed the country’s western borders—approximately 5,500 years ago. While their origins remain shrouded in time, recent DNA samples suggest these travelers came from East, Central, and Western Asia. Their clothing suggests Caucasian or European origins, and their language is believed to have evolved from Indo-European dialects.
What is most striking is the presence of tattoos on these desiccated mummies. Some of the oldest tattoos date back to the second millennium BC and depict solar motifs. Similar patterns have been discovered in rock carvings across Central Europe. These motifs are visible on the 3,800-year-old “Cherchen Man,” whose markings were applied with pigment after death. Standing 167 cm tall with red hair and a long nose, his features mirror the “tall, blue or green-eyed, red-bearded” figures mentioned in ancient texts. The sun symbol on his body likely served a ritual purpose, intended to guide him through a purifying ceremony into the afterlife.
Another 3,500-year-old mummy features incredibly complex tattoos on the back of the hand, which some researchers interpret as a form of proto-script. Historically, Han observers viewed these “Western barbarians” with disdain. However, if these people brought advanced technology to ancient China, it would significantly alter our understanding of history.
The Dulong Women of Yunnan
In Northwest China, facial tattooing (baktuq-ru) was a well-known tradition among the Dulong (or Drung) people until the mid-20th century. Young girls were tattooed during early adolescence with unique patterns.
The origins of this practice are rooted in legend. Some say it began as a deterrent against Tibetan slave traders who kidnapped young women; others believe it was meant to prevent Dulong women from longing for life in the big cities. Local researchers suggest the marks served as rites of passage or clan identifiers. By 2003, only about 65 tattooed Dulong women remained in the isolated mountains near Tibet—a region cut off by snow for six months of the year. Today, fewer than 40 survive, most aged between 70 and 100. The practice was officially banned by the government in 1967.
One 98-year-old survivor recalled only the immense pain of the process, sharing the experience with two other crying girls. The linear, dotted patterns resembled a butterfly, with the body on the nose and wings spreading across the cheeks. The pigment—a mixture of soot, water, and saliva—was pricked into the skin using bamboo needles over a 7-8 hour session. In Dulong culture, the butterfly is linked to death, as souls are believed to transform into butterflies in the afterlife.
The Legacy of the Li People
The Li people of Hainan Island practiced a spirituality centered on ancestor worship and nature. They believed everything in the visible and invisible worlds possessed an immortal soul. Mountains, particularly the “Five Finger Mountain,” were sacred. Expeditions there required absolute silence and strict rituals to avoid provoking spirits or dangerous animals.
The Li tattooing process used a sharp sugarcane needle attached to a bamboo stick, driven into the skin with a wooden mallet. Pigments were derived from natural indigo (Baphicacanthus cusia) or the Barbados nut (Jatropha curcas). Most tattoo artists were women. The designs varied by tribe and were inspired by nature—plants, animals, and totemic symbols passed down through generations.
Though often dismissed by officials as a “barbaric” mark of the uncivilized, these tattoos represent a rich national treasure and a complex artistic heritage that is sadly disappearing from the face of the earth.